Barth vs. Brunner and Natural Theology

The concept of natural theology pertains to the belief that natural gifts are provided from conception and installed mainly on human mind. Furthermore, it states that the revelations are provided on the general prospect of humans, and not merely on special individuals. In this theory, revelations are said to be revealed not only from the Scriptural basis or even from Jesus Christ .As for the theory’s concern, the scholastic tradition of natural theology had provided their simple explanation why the Scripture and Jesus Christ received some sort of special revelation . According to natural theologians, the rationale for the provision of such special revelation is nothing more than an unexplainable event or beyond human reason . As far as the history of theology is concerned, one of the most highlighted debates comes from Karl Barth and Emil Brunner, dating from 1914 .From the concepts and theological principles introduced by Barth and Brunner comes the great and prolonged theolo gical debate, forthcoming from the quarters of â€Å"dialectical theology†, particularly from Barth’s radical rejection of the notions of General Revelation and Natural Religion or Natural Theology, including the â€Å"point of contact† and the rest. By far, this argument has been known as the Barth-Brunner conflict . Due to the strong influence and very much detailed argument brought by Barth, the conflict between the two theologians has greatly affected the stand point of today’s theology.This controversy has dominated the theological discussion of to-day, and has affected literally every problem . In this study, the primary discussion revolves in covering the issues brought by the debates of Barth and Brunner, and the theological concepts embedded in their proposed principles. From the point of view of the study, the first thing to discuss is the concept of natural theology in order to determine the rationale for its rejection. Next, the study centers on the conflicting theologian, Karl Barth and Emil Brunner.Lastly, the study provides the analysis of their argument to explore the primary stand points from both theological perspectives. Discussion The Concept of Natural Theology In general, the Reformers were less enthusiastic about natural theology, in part because they rejected much of the scholastic tradition, in part because it tended to render special revelation, and particularly Scripture, less necessary, and in part because it granted fallen human beings powers of correct reasoning that the Reformers themselves saw as corrupted by sin .According to the traditional scholastic movement, the concept of natural theology only provides its significance by illustrating human sin and their never-ending need to survive – more like an instinctive theological description – however, with little standing ground in justifying how these humanistic needs pursue . It is not the place here to enter into the historical, psychol ogical and theological reasons for the development of this great controversy. The historical reason is the adamant opposition that had to be shown to Nazi ideology and the wrong and dangerous theology of the German Christians.Barth rendered here an immeasurable service to sound theology and the cause of the Church as a whole . A form of natural theology that is worth defending takes its cue from core theological interpretations of the nature of God and the world. The concept of natural theology comprises of three theoretical perspectives that are derived mainly on nature that correlates with the divinity of God. The word ‘natural’ in the expression ‘natural theology’ is meant to mark a contrast between nature and revelation.The concept of Natural theology does not imply natural in the perspective of being a non-complex and unsophisticated belief, but rather, the natural theology is the product of a fairly sophisticated state of western theism and would have been foreign to many great religious thinkers before the Middle Ages. The concept of natural theology was realized during the era wherein theologians tried to logically obtain the answers to divine existence while at the stage of reflecting their religion.At this point of Middle Age, theologians obtain the elements that have been established already beforehand, and those that can provide unaided rationale for those parts that they believed to be unnatural. Hence, they coined and develop the natural theology, which somehow contradicts the existence of natural activities through single-handed or chose ones. As for the theory, it mainly exemplifies that everyone is chosen in their own account of being an image created after God . The concept of natural theology allied with Nazism most especially during the time of Jews massive discrimination.Significantly, the natural theology, even from the early times, pointed its fingers to chosen individuals, such as the Jews, wherein the theology contradicts the fact that these people are chose. The possibility of natural theology has been denied by some theologians and by some philosophers. The theological arguments against natural theology are mostly concerned with the relationship between reason and faith: they urge the uselessness of reason as a means to salvation and of philosophical speculation as a step on the road to heaven .One of the essential criticism that served as ground basis for the concept of natural theology is the fact that these principles are essentially from the philosophical perspectives, which in the end obtained vast arguments and criticisms against natural theology itself. In particular, the theologians of Natural perspective drew heavily on natural philosophy to show how the hand of the Creator could be discerned in the Book of Nature as well as the Book of Scriptures.By contrast, those still wedded to a more traditional order in Church and State tended to be wary of natural theology and the forms of natural philosophy interlinked with it as obscurities from a theology based on Divine revelation . On the other hand, the significance of Natural theology is its ability to provide an analysis of the human situation and the question of God implied in it. One side of the traditional arguments for the existence of God usually does this, in so far as they elucidate the dependent, transitory, and relational nature of finite human existence.But, in developing the other side of these arguments, natural theology tried to derive theological affirmations from the analysis of man’s finitude . The natural theology concentrates mainly on the natural imagery of men as earthly beings being linked to God’s image. As for the theory, it mentions that every human being possesses the right to obtain revelation from God for everyone is from the same image, which is God. Somehow, these two rationales are deemed as the primary arguments that render the argument of the Natural theology.F irst, natural theology should not claim to operate with an account of pure, objective, ahistorical reason . For man’s reasoning cannot be considered absolutely pure from intention for man by his own nature is deprived from complete purity; hence, contradicts the statement of natural theology itself. Second, natural theology should not offer a philosophical metaphysics as a way of mediating between faith and the world . From these concepts, the argument against natural theology settles in. Different theologians, most significantly Karl Barth realizes the wrong ideations brought by the theology.From the perspective of Thomas Aquinas (1225—1274), he claimed that there are certain truths that are attainable by the powers of â€Å"reason properly applied, and others that are beyond the reach of reason, and are known only through revelation†. From Aquinas’ theology, the concept attaining revelation and reason conjoins to further discover the truth and absolute reasoning . The concept of nature in the doctrines of theology can be misleading and contradictory for its very meaning can be a profound statement of obscurity, which can also contribute to the eclipse of God’s imagery .As for the theory of Natural origination, it is a major concept where philosophy of religion interrelates theological aspects. Philosophies of religion scrutinizes what the sheer existence of the universe entails what it forces us to conclude, and likewise what its order entails. Protestantism is usually against the concept of natural theology for they claim that God, whose existence is demonstrated, is not the Christian God. For Protestants, God Himself should not concern in Himself in providing His existence for He in fact exist above all.Whether natural theology is to be dismissed and why is a major area of investigation in Christian theology. Roman Catholic somehow defended the concept of natural theology for they believe that there are essential differen ces between what we can know of God by means of natural theology and what we know of God by revelation. Currently, natural theology tends to act and to be used as a tool that metaphorically provides clergy and students some rigorous proof to demonstrate God’s existence .Emil Brunner In 1914, Brunner published a work entitled Nature and Grace wherein his main argument coincides mainly on the generational theology’s task of reverting back to the concept of natural theology . Brunner, being one of the main characters of natural theological concept, obtained his idea of natural theology from the concept of imago Del or in translation would mean, â€Å"Image of God†. Human nature is constituted in such a way that there is an analog with the being of God .Considering the sinful nature of human beings as installed already in their instinctive characteristic, Brunner stated that the ability of human beings to discern the presence of God is still there by the concept or reasoning that God remains in the natural environment. Within the context of human beings as sinners, still their innate nature are capable of recognizing the presence of God and are still aware of their guilt before God. All these linkage are brought by the concept of natural stand present in man from the time of his creation and image pattern.Hence, as Brunner concluded, this linkage brings forth revelation to every man with no special disposition present, such as sinner or holy, rich or poor, or any other means. Brunner significantly pointed out that God can manifest His revelation to anyone with no consideration on human characteristic since human beings are all created out of his natural image . As per Brunner’s defense on natural theology, greatly point out the significance of the doctrine of the incarnation to revelation: in Christ may be seen the personal self-disclosure of God .From Brunner’s ground basis, it is the story of creation that serves as the fore gr ound of this theological belief. He reasoned that there are considerably three rationales that offer support for the theory of Natural theology namely, human reason, and order of the world and beauty of the world . In the argument of Human Reason, considering that God’s existence can be found in His creation, and then it is acceptable to use the idea that God can be most likely found in the highest peak of His creation, which is human reason .The next argument Brunner introduced is the ordering of the world, wherein the prime philosopher concerned is Thomas Aquinas. Considering that the natural pattern in the environment is unquestionably and extremely organized, this phenomena been emphasized to be from God . Brunner did no go as far in denouncing the philosophical approach to God. Nevertheless, Brunner stated that the attempt to derive knowledge of God from creation, which is the theology of natural religion, is ultimately not being helpful in theological doctrine.He even a dmitted that the knowledge of the Creator forms as a component of our existence. However, Brunner concluded that this knowledge component placed to human beings as God’s creation does not follow that human beings know God completely, since such philosophical intelligence does not end in communion with God . Brunner’s theology has been linked very much within an existentialist, dialectical framework and focused mainly on the uniqueness of existential, personal understanding. He even continued with basically anthropological starting point.Lastly, the concept of beauty present in the world has also been emphasized as an argumentative statement in Brunner’s ideologies. According to these theologians, the presence of beauty in surrounding world is the primary depiction of God’s existence through the nature’s beauty . Another focus entailed by Brunner in his beliefs is in faith of having personal encounter between the one who hears the Word, believer, or human being per say, and the God who speaks and draws near in grace, as distinct from an acceptance of abstract propositions of belief.Christianity thus sets forth â€Å"truth as encounter†, Brunner’s primary effect and influence thus far had come through his writings of â€Å"The Mediator and The Divine Imperative† and in Brunner Oldham perceived the chances and events for creating an innovative and urgently required dialogue between evangelical theology and the contemporary human sciences — vital if the churches were to address seriously the current world context . Enveloped in Brunner’s appeal to nature is an idea, which can be traced back to Luther, known as â€Å"the orders of creation. †The generation Nineteenth-century German Liberal Protestantism had utilized this perspective as their basis, and further developed a theology, which permitted the German culture, including a positive assessment of the state, to become of primary signif icance theologically . Brunner had used this idea of the â€Å"point of contact† back in 1927, and it is integral to his understanding of human nature. For Brunner, human nature is constituted in such a way that there is a ready made point of contract for divine revelation. Revelation thus addresses itself to a human nature, which already has sonic Idea of what that revelation is about.For example, take the gospel demand to â€Å"repent of sin,† Brunner argues that this makes little sense, unless human beings already have some idea of what â€Å"sin† is. Karl Barth: Analysis of the Argument During the twentieth century, Karl Barth (1886—1968) initiated the so called spiritual argument or attack in the theoretical concept of natural theology. For this reason, the theologian ties between him and another leading ‘neo-orthodox theologian, Emil Brunner (1889—1966) broke due Barth’s attack on Brunner’s theological concepts .Such actio n is very much important for Barth’s perspective in that it shows the importance of natural theology’s attempt to further provide an illustration of Christianity’s attaining its peak on German civilization; hence, the sole purpose of Barth is to negate the ally status of natural theology to the concept of Nazism . Barth’s criticism is that it goes beyond any rejection of natural theology that is based on claims that it is invalid, unpersuasive, or unnecessary .From Barth’s argument, he exemplified that God has indeed revealed His identity to human beings; hence, it should be natural for humans to be convinced on God’s existence. It is already insignificant to have God’s existence justified in other forms for He already chosen to be revealed in the form of His triune son, which is Jesus Christ . A natural theology that proceeds from a different starting point must inevitably compromise and distract in relation to the primary theologica l task.Even worse, it may threaten to subvert the true nature of the faith by the introduction of foreign and ethically dangerous materials . Barth’s last consideration to reject the principles of natural education lies with the fact that such form of theology is a potential ally to compensate the needs of German ideations against Jews and other racial backgrounds. By far, the theoretical principle of Natural theology hinders the acknowledgement of Jesus Christ. From the perspective of Barth’s argument, natural theology is a human attempt to initiation subversions for human’s necessity for revelation.The theology, by its very purpose and significance, attempts to learn more about God in a manner and under conditions specified by humans’ ways and not by God Himself . In Barth’s view, the concept of natural theology is very much compromised in historical, philosophical and theological significances. The great Scottish theologian Hugh Ross Mackintosh once summarized the questions centering on revelation as follows: â€Å" religious knowledge of God, wherever existing, comes by revelation; otherwise we should be committed to the incredible position that a man can know God without Has willing to be known .† The main idea embedded in Barth’s desire to counter the theology of natural perspective is for the purpose of safeguarding the integrity present in divine revelation against human attempts to Construct their own notions of God. As for Barth’s perspective, he argues that revelations from God do not simply occur to anyone, unless God chose to. It is neither inborn nor chosen to be possessed by me, but it is God’s choice to reveal Himself to an individual. Revelation, indeed, is out of human’s power but solely rely to God’s preference.Although deeply distrustful of all apologetic instincts, Barth appears to make a minor but important concession in his discussion of natural theology. In its proclamation of God’s self-revelation, the Bible does not ignore the details of the cosmos or the physical world as these are known from empirical observation and human experience. In their own way, they attest the divine truth . However, this event does not simply occur or free for man to manipulate. It is not a separate line of enquiry that can simply alter or displace human perspectives from the original faith .On the contrary, its function in Scripture is to incorporate within a single framework all that attaches to human existence in the cosmos. The argument of Barth provides an extended and systematic criticism of natural theology. The main conflict thrown by his argument argues that such theology, â€Å"which comes to humanity from nature†, expresses the humanity’s â€Å"self-preservation and self-affirmation† in the face of God . Barth views the concept of natural theology as a safeguarding perspective to cover human being’s longing to jus tify self against God and for the provision of independent intellectualities.His conflicting idealism against this theology rests on his fundamental belief that it undermines the necessity and uniqueness of God’s self-revelation. From the logical statement introduced by Barth’s argument, if knowledge of God can be achieved independently of God’s self-revelation in Christ, then it follows that humanity can dictate the place, time and means of its knowledge of God . The perspective of Barth against natural theology institutes a close relationship between the theology itself and the subject of human independence against religion and divine supervision.Considering Barth’s familiarity in the concept of natural theology, he confirms and expresses the human desire to find God on our own terms . The central concept on Barth’s argument had been scrutinized by the religious community; hence, considering his argument against natural theology. However, other t heologians have been having this assumption of Barth’s initiating a scientific theology despite of his overcorrection of the Reformed theological position, and that an informed recovery of an older position is overdue.A scientific theology offers such reappropriation and the second of these merits dose attention . It is a simple fact of historical theology chat the Reformed theological tradition has not, on the whole, opposed natural theology. Conclusion The argument of Barth and Brunner with the subject of natural theology has been present from and long influenced the condition of catholic beliefs and perception against the occurrence of God’s existence and the value of human self-justification and intellectual identity.The natural theology mainly states that the existence of God is in the physical form of nature itself, considering its organization, beauty and man’s intelligence, which are derived from God’s imagery. However, Barth refuted this theology and stated that God’s existence is in the form of Jesus Christ. He contradicts the theology due to its self-justification, and tendency to form ally with Nazism. Bibliography Allen, D. and Springstein, E. O. Philosophy for Understanding Theology (Westminster John Knox Press, 2007) p. 19 Clements, K.Faith on the Frontier: A Life of J. H. Oldham (Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999) p. 272 Gonzales, J. L. Essential Theological Terms (Westminster John Knox Press, 2005) p. 118 Grenz, J. Theology for the Community of God (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000) p. 50 Huyssteen, W. V. and Shults, F. L. The Evolution of Rationality (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006) p. 392 Kenny, P. and Kenny, A. . The God of the Philosophers (Oxford University Press, 1979) p. 2 Kraemer H, Religion and the Christian Faith (James Clarke & Co., 2003) p. 356 McGrath, A. E. An Introduction to Christianity (Blackwell Publishing, 1997) p. 162 McGrath, A. E. Christian Theology: An Introduction (Black well Publishing, 2006) 170 McGrath, A. E. The Science of God: An Introduction to Scientific Theology (Eerdmans Publishing, 2004) p. 84 Porter, et. al. R. The Cambridge History of Science (Cambridge University Press, 2003) p. 270 Scott, P. A Political Theology of Nature (Cambridge University Press, 2003) p. 40 Tilich, P. Systematic Theology (University of Chicago Press, 1963) p. 14 Barth vs. Brunner and Natural Theology IntroductionThe concept of natural theology pertains to the belief that natural gifts are provided from conception and installed mainly on human mind. Furthermore, it states that the revelations are provided on the general prospect of humans, and not merely on special individuals. In this theory, revelations are said to be revealed not only from the Scriptural basis or even from Jesus Christ .As for the theory’s concern, the scholastic tradition of natural theology had provided their simple explanation why the Scripture and Jesus Christ received some sort of special revelation . According to natural theologians, the rationale for the provision of such special revelation is nothing more than an unexplainable event or beyond human reason . As far as the history of theology is concerned, one of the most highlighted debates comes from Karl Barth and Emil Brunner, dating from 1914 .From the concepts and theological principles introduced by Barth and Brunner comes the great and prol onged theological debate, forthcoming from the quarters of â€Å"dialectical theology†, particularly from Barth’s radical rejection of the notions of General Revelation and Natural Religion or Natural Theology, including the â€Å"point of contact† and the rest. By far, this argument has been known as the Barth-Brunner conflict . Due to the strong influence and very much detailed argument brought by Barth, the conflict between the two theologians has greatly affected the stand point of today’s theology.This controversy has dominated the theological discussion of to-day, and has affected literally every problem . In this study, the primary discussion revolves in covering the issues brought by the debates of Barth and Brunner, and the theological concepts embedded in their proposed principles. From the point of view of the study, the first thing to discuss is the concept of natural theology in order to determine the rationale for its rejection. Next, the st udy centers on the conflicting theologian, Karl Barth and Emil Brunner.Lastly, the study provides the analysis of their argument to explore the primary stand points from both theological perspectives. Discussion The Concept of Natural Theology In general, the Reformers were less enthusiastic about natural theology, in part because they rejected much of the scholastic tradition, in part because it tended to render special revelation, and particularly Scripture, less necessary, and in part because it granted fallen human beings powers of correct reasoning that the Reformers themselves saw as corrupted by sin .According to the traditional scholastic movement, the concept of natural theology only provides its significance by illustrating human sin and their never-ending need to survive – more like an instinctive theological description – however, with little standing ground in justifying how these humanistic needs pursue . It is not the place here to enter into the histori cal, psychological and theological reasons for the development of this great controversy. The historical reason is the adamant opposition that had to be shown to Nazi ideology and the wrong and dangerous theology of the German Christians.Barth rendered here an immeasurable service to sound theology and the cause of the Church as a whole . A form of natural theology that is worth defending takes its cue from core theological interpretations of the nature of God and the world. The concept of natural theology comprises of three theoretical perspectives that are derived mainly on nature that correlates with the divinity of God. The word ‘natural’ in the expression ‘natural theology’ is meant to mark a contrast between nature and revelation.The concept of Natural theology does not imply natural in the perspective of being a non-complex and unsophisticated belief, but rather, the natural theology is the product of a fairly sophisticated state of western theism an d would have been foreign to many great religious thinkers before the Middle Ages. The concept of natural theology was realized during the era wherein theologians tried to logically obtain the answers to divine existence while at the stage of reflecting their religion.At this point of Middle Age, theologians obtain the elements that have been established already beforehand, and those that can provide unaided rationale for those parts that they believed to be unnatural. Hence, they coined and develop the natural theology, which somehow contradicts the existence of natural activities through single-handed or chose ones. As for the theory, it mainly exemplifies that everyone is chosen in their own account of being an image created after God . The concept of natural theology allied with Nazism most especially during the time of Jews massive discrimination.Significantly, the natural theology, even from the early times, pointed its fingers to chosen individuals, such as the Jews, wherein the theology contradicts the fact that these people are chose. The possibility of natural theology has been denied by some theologians and by some philosophers. The theological arguments against natural theology are mostly concerned with the relationship between reason and faith: they urge the uselessness of reason as a means to salvation and of philosophical speculation as a step on the road to heaven .One of the essential criticism that served as ground basis for the concept of natural theology is the fact that these principles are essentially from the philosophical perspectives, which in the end obtained vast arguments and criticisms against natural theology itself. In particular, the theologians of Natural perspective drew heavily on natural philosophy to show how the hand of the Creator could be discerned in the Book of Nature as well as the Book of Scriptures.By contrast, those still wedded to a more traditional order in Church and State tended to be wary of natural theology a nd the forms of natural philosophy interlinked with it as obscurities from a theology based on Divine revelation . On the other hand, the significance of Natural theology is its ability to provide an analysis of the human situation and the question of God implied in it. One side of the traditional arguments for the existence of God usually does this, in so far as they elucidate the dependent, transitory, and relational nature of finite human existence.But, in developing the other side of these arguments, natural theology tried to derive theological affirmations from the analysis of man’s finitude . The natural theology concentrates mainly on the natural imagery of men as earthly beings being linked to God’s image. As for the theory, it mentions that every human being possesses the right to obtain revelation from God for everyone is from the same image, which is God. Somehow, these two rationales are deemed as the primary arguments that render the argument of the Natura l theology.First, natural theology should not claim to operate with an account of pure, objective, ahistorical reason . For man’s reasoning cannot be considered absolutely pure from intention for man by his own nature is deprived from complete purity; hence, contradicts the statement of natural theology itself. Second, natural theology should not offer a philosophical metaphysics as a way of mediating between faith and the world . From these concepts, the argument against natural theology settles in. Different theologians, most significantly Karl Barth realizes the wrong ideations brought by the theology.From the perspective of Thomas Aquinas (1225—1274), he claimed that there are certain truths that are attainable by the powers of â€Å"reason properly applied, and others that are beyond the reach of reason, and are known only through revelation†. From Aquinas’ theology, the concept attaining revelation and reason conjoins to further discover the truth a nd absolute reasoning . The concept of nature in the doctrines of theology can be misleading and contradictory for its very meaning can be a profound statement of obscurity, which can also contribute to the eclipse of God’s imagery .As for the theory of Natural origination, it is a major concept where philosophy of religion interrelates theological aspects. Philosophies of religion scrutinizes what the sheer existence of the universe entails what it forces us to conclude, and likewise what its order entails. Protestantism is usually against the concept of natural theology for they claim that God, whose existence is demonstrated, is not the Christian God. For Protestants, God Himself should not concern in Himself in providing His existence for He in fact exist above all.Whether natural theology is to be dismissed and why is a major area of investigation in Christian theology. Roman Catholic somehow defended the concept of natural theology for they believe that there are essent ial differences between what we can know of God by means of natural theology and what we know of God by revelation. Currently, natural theology tends to act and to be used as a tool that metaphorically provides clergy and students some rigorous proof to demonstrate God’s existence .Emil Brunner In 1914, Brunner published a work entitled Nature and Grace wherein his main argument coincides mainly on the generational theology’s task of reverting back to the concept of natural theology . Brunner, being one of the main characters of natural theological concept, obtained his idea of natural theology from the concept of imago Del or in translation would mean, â€Å"Image of God†. Human nature is constituted in such a way that there is an analog with the being of God .Considering the sinful nature of human beings as installed already in their instinctive characteristic, Brunner stated that the ability of human beings to discern the presence of God is still there by the concept or reasoning that God remains in the natural environment. Within the context of human beings as sinners, still their innate nature are capable of recognizing the presence of God and are still aware of their guilt before God. All these linkage are brought by the concept of natural stand present in man from the time of his creation and image pattern.Hence, as Brunner concluded, this linkage brings forth revelation to every man with no special disposition present, such as sinner or holy, rich or poor, or any other means. Brunner significantly pointed out that God can manifest His revelation to anyone with no consideration on human characteristic since human beings are all created out of his natural image . As per Brunner’s defense on natural theology, greatly point out the significance of the doctrine of the incarnation to revelation: in Christ may be seen the personal self-disclosure of God .From Brunner’s ground basis, it is the story of creation that serves as the fore ground of this theological belief. He reasoned that there are considerably three rationales that offer support for the theory of Natural theology namely, human reason, and order of the world and beauty of the world . In the argument of Human Reason, considering that God’s existence can be found in His creation, and then it is acceptable to use the idea that God can be most likely found in the highest peak of His creation, which is human reason .The next argument Brunner introduced is the ordering of the world, wherein the prime philosopher concerned is Thomas Aquinas. Considering that the natural pattern in the environment is unquestionably and extremely organized, this phenomena been emphasized to be from God . Brunner did no go as far in denouncing the philosophical approach to God. Nevertheless, Brunner stated that the attempt to derive knowledge of God from creation, which is the theology of natural religion, is ultimately not being helpful in theological doctri ne.He even admitted that the knowledge of the Creator forms as a component of our existence. However, Brunner concluded that this knowledge component placed to human beings as God’s creation does not follow that human beings know God completely, since such philosophical intelligence does not end in communion with God . Brunner’s theology has been linked very much within an existentialist, dialectical framework and focused mainly on the uniqueness of existential, personal understanding. He even continued with basically anthropological starting point.Lastly, the concept of beauty present in the world has also been emphasized as an argumentative statement in Brunner’s ideologies. According to these theologians, the presence of beauty in surrounding world is the primary depiction of God’s existence through the nature’s beauty . Another focus entailed by Brunner in his beliefs is in faith of having personal encounter between the one who hears the Word, believer, or human being per say, and the God who speaks and draws near in grace, as distinct from an acceptance of abstract propositions of belief.Christianity thus sets forth â€Å"truth as encounter†, Brunner’s primary effect and influence thus far had come through his writings of â€Å"The Mediator and The Divine Imperative† and in Brunner Oldham perceived the chances and events for creating an innovative and urgently required dialogue between evangelical theology and the contemporary human sciences — vital if the churches were to address seriously the current world context . Enveloped in Brunner’s appeal to nature is an idea, which can be traced back to Luther, known as â€Å"the orders of creation. †The generation Nineteenth-century German Liberal Protestantism had utilized this perspective as their basis, and further developed a theology, which permitted the German culture, including a positive assessment of the state, to become of pr imary significance theologically . Brunner had used this idea of the â€Å"point of contact† back in 1927, and it is integral to his understanding of human nature. For Brunner, human nature is constituted in such a way that there is a ready made point of contract for divine revelation. Revelation thus addresses itself to a human nature, which already has sonic Idea of what that revelation is about.For example, take the gospel demand to â€Å"repent of sin,† Brunner argues that this makes little sense, unless human beings already have some idea of what â€Å"sin† is. Karl Barth: Analysis of the Argument During the twentieth century, Karl Barth (1886—1968) initiated the so called spiritual argument or attack in the theoretical concept of natural theology. For this reason, the theologian ties between him and another leading ‘neo-orthodox theologian, Emil Brunner (1889—1966) broke due Barth’s attack on Brunner’s theological concepts .Such action is very much important for Barth’s perspective in that it shows the importance of natural theology’s attempt to further provide an illustration of Christianity’s attaining its peak on German civilization; hence, the sole purpose of Barth is to negate the ally status of natural theology to the concept of Nazism . Barth’s criticism is that it goes beyond any rejection of natural theology that is based on claims that it is invalid, unpersuasive, or unnecessary .From Barth’s argument, he exemplified that God has indeed revealed His identity to human beings; hence, it should be natural for humans to be convinced on God’s existence. It is already insignificant to have God’s existence justified in other forms for He already chosen to be revealed in the form of His triune son, which is Jesus Christ . A natural theology that proceeds from a different starting point must inevitably compromise and distract in relation to the primar y theological task.Even worse, it may threaten to subvert the true nature of the faith by the introduction of foreign and ethically dangerous materials . Barth’s last consideration to reject the principles of natural education lies with the fact that such form of theology is a potential ally to compensate the needs of German ideations against Jews and other racial backgrounds. By far, the theoretical principle of Natural theology hinders the acknowledgement of Jesus Christ. From the perspective of Barth’s argument, natural theology is a human attempt to initiation subversions for human’s necessity for revelation.The theology, by its very purpose and significance, attempts to learn more about God in a manner and under conditions specified by humans’ ways and not by God Himself . In Barth’s view, the concept of natural theology is very much compromised in historical, philosophical and theological significances. The great Scottish theologian Hugh Ross Mackintosh once summarized the questions centering on revelation as follows: â€Å" religious knowledge of God, wherever existing, comes by revelation; otherwise we should be committed to the incredible position that a man can know God without Has willing to be known .†The main idea embedded in Barth’s desire to counter the theology of natural perspective is for the purpose of safeguarding the integrity present in divine revelation against human attempts to Construct their own notions of God. As for Barth’s perspective, he argues that revelations from God do not simply occur to anyone, unless God chose to. It is neither inborn nor chosen to be possessed by me, but it is God’s choice to reveal Himself to an individual. Revelation, indeed, is out of human’s power but solely rely to God’s preference.Although deeply distrustful of all apologetic instincts, Barth appears to make a minor but important concession in his discussion of natural theol ogy. In its proclamation of God’s self-revelation, the Bible does not ignore the details of the cosmos or the physical world as these are known from empirical observation and human experience. In their own way, they attest the divine truth . However, this event does not simply occur or free for man to manipulate. It is not a separate line of enquiry that can simply alter or displace human perspectives from the original faith .On the contrary, its function in Scripture is to incorporate within a single framework all that attaches to human existence in the cosmos. The argument of Barth provides an extended and systematic criticism of natural theology. The main conflict thrown by his argument argues that such theology, â€Å"which comes to humanity from nature†, expresses the humanity’s â€Å"self-preservation and self-affirmation† in the face of God . Barth views the concept of natural theology as a safeguarding perspective to cover human being’s lon ging to justify self against God and for the provision of independent intellectualities.His conflicting idealism against this theology rests on his fundamental belief that it undermines the necessity and uniqueness of God’s self-revelation. From the logical statement introduced by Barth’s argument, if knowledge of God can be achieved independently of God’s self-revelation in Christ, then it follows that humanity can dictate the place, time and means of its knowledge of God. The perspective of Barth against natural theology institutes a close relationship between the theology itself and the subject of human independence against religion and divine supervision.Considering Barth’s familiarity in the concept of natural theology, he confirms and expresses the human desire to find God on our own terms . The central concept on Barth’s argument had been scrutinized by the religious community; hence, considering his argument against natural theology. Howeve r, other theologians have been having this assumption of Barth’s initiating a scientific theology despite of his overcorrection of the Reformed theological position, and that an informed recovery of an older position is overdue.A scientific theology offers such reappropriation and the second of these merits dose attention . It is a simple fact of historical theology chat the Reformed theological tradition has not, on the whole, opposed natural theology. Conclusion The argument of Barth and Brunner with the subject of natural theology has been present from and long influenced the condition of catholic beliefs and perception against the occurrence of God’s existence and the value of human self-justification and intellectual identity.The natural theology mainly states that the existence of God is in the physical form of nature itself, considering its organization, beauty and man’s intelligence, which are derived from God’s imagery. However, Barth refuted thi s theology and stated that God’s existence is in the form of Jesus Christ. He contradicts the theology due to its self-justification, and tendency to form ally with Nazism.BibliographyAllen, D. and Springstein, E. O. Philosophy for Understanding Theology (Westminster John Knox Press, 2007) p. 19.Clements, K. Faith on the Frontier: A Life of J. H. Oldham (Continuum International Publishing Group, 1999) p. 272.Gonzales, J. L. Essential Theological Terms (Westminster John Knox Press, 2005) p. 118.Grenz, J. Theology for the Community of God (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000) p. 50.Huyssteen, W. V. and Shults, F. L. The Evolution of Rationality (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006) p. 392.Kenny, P. and Kenny, A. . The God of the Philosophers (Oxford University Press, 1979) p. 2.Kraemer H, Religion and the Christian Faith (James Clarke & Co., 2003) p. 356.McGrath, A. E. An Introduction to Christianity (Blackwell Publishing, 1997) p. 162.McGrath, A. E. Christian Theology: An Introducti on (Blackwell Publishing, 2006) 170.McGrath, A. E. The Science of God: An Introduction to Scientific Theology (Eerdmans Publishing, 2004) p. 84.Porter, et. al. R. The Cambridge History of Science (Cambridge University Press, 2003) p. 270.Scott, P. A Political Theology of Nature (Cambridge University Press, 2003) p. 40.Tilich, P. Systematic Theology (University of Chicago Press, 1963) p. 14.

Banana Peeling as an Alternative Shoe Polish Essay

ii.Abstract We all know that our country today is suffering from crisis. That was the reason why we want to launch this study, since shoe polish now a days is very needed and is costly, we want to produce a more cheaper and efficient shoe polish to use. This project determines the possibility of the variety of banana peelings as shoe polish cream. Then it was compared to the commercial shoe polish in terms of effectiveness using the acceptability test. And this test resulted that banana peelings had no significant difference to commercial shoe polish. We therefore conclude that banana peelings showed potential to be an alternative shoe polish. iii. Acknowledgement This investigatory project would never been realized without the financial support, effort and unselfish assistance of the people who willingly helped the researchers .In due recognition of all those who contributed to the success of this study, the researchers extend their deep gratitude and heartfelt appreciation to the following: First of all, our almighty God, the creator and savior who give life, good health, wisdom and guidance to finish this investigatory project. Ms. Roneth Edullantes, our subject teacher and Ms. Rhea Niere, who gives support and guidance to make this study successful. Lastly, to our parents for the financial assistance and guidance to the researchers to make this project successful. I. Title: Banana Peeling as an Alternative Shoe Polish II. Rationale: We all know that our country today is suffering from crisis. That was the reason why we want to launch this study, since shoe polish now a days is very needed and is costly, we want to produce a more cheaper and efficient shoe polish to use. Shoe polish is used to shine, to maintain the appearance and to sustain the quality of the shoes. Various substances have been used as shoe polish for hundreds of years, starting with natural substances such as wax and tallow. Modern polish formulate were introduced early in the 20th century and some products from that era are still in use today. Today, shoe polish is usually made from a mix of natural and synthetic materials, including naphtha, turpentine, dyes, and gum Arabic, using straightforward chemical engineering processes. Shoe polish can be toxic, and, if misused, can stain skin. Based on the information in the written articles, banana peels can be used to shine shoes so we researchers decided to come up with the study of making a shoe polish out of banana peelings. Banana is the common name for a fruit and also the herbaceous plants of the genus Musa which produce the commonly eaten fruit. They are cultivated primarily for their fruit, and to a lesser extent for the production of fibre and as ornamental plants. Statement of the Problem: The researchers would like to know if the peelings of the banana can be made as a shoe polish and have the same result as the synthetic shoe polish. Hypothesis: We will use the peelings of the banana as shoe polish since bananas contain a key ingredient found in commercial shoe polishes – potassium. Significance of the study: This study is significant because it is a great way to reduce waste and you can have polished shoes without damaging your health or the environment, leaving behind zero packaging waste. III. Review of Related Literature and Studies: Since medieval times, dubbin, a waxy product, was used to soften and waterproof leather; however, it did not impart shine. It was made from natural wax, oil, soda ash and tallow. As leather with a high natural veneer became popular in the eighteenth century, a high glossy finish became important, particularly on shoes and boots. In most cases, a variety of homemade polishes were used to provide this finish, often with lanolin or beeswax as a base. In the nineteenth century, many forms of shoe polish became available, yet were rarely referred to as shoe polish or boot polish. Instead, they were often called blacking (especially when mixed with lampblack), or simply continued to be referred to as dubbin. Tallow, an animal by-product, was used to manufacture a simple form of shoe polish at this time. Chicago, Illinois, where 82% of the meat consumed in the United States was processed in the stock yards, became a major shoe polish producing area for this reason. (Sajulan, 2008) Shoe polish can be toxic. In Los Angeles and most other places, shoe polish is disallowed in the regular trash. It must be disposed of as a hazardous material, because it often contains materials like naphtha and turpentine. V. Procedure For the shoe without the kiwi; this is what we will do: First, we will peel the banana. We will take the fruit out and eat it, but we must make sure we keep the skin. Secondly, using the inner lining of the banana skin, we will begin to rub it all over the shoe, just as we would if we were using polish. Lastly, buff it. Once we have wiped the banana skin over the shoe, we will buff it up with a soft cloth. As for the other pair with Kiwi; this is what we will do: First, we will brush the shoe good, cleaning it of any dust or dirt. With the rag wrapped tightly around the first two fingers, we will apply the polish in small, tight swirls. After applying it all over the shoe, wait for it to dry. When the shoe polish have already dried, buff it with a soft cloth. VI. Time Table We will make our project this Saturday since it’s a weekend and it’s the perfect time to do the project. The schedule in making the project is attainable since the task of making it is quite simple, so it won’t take up too much of our time. VII. Budget VIII. Proponents The people who proposed this project is Hannah Gabrielle Doncillo and Anne Mariae Dalocanog from Gr.8 Counsel

Aa meeting

At the Delta club, otherwise known as Alcoholics Anonymous, the first thing the people there offered me a book to read and study. I held the book open at the first page while we waited for a girl named Amy; I guess she’s the one who starts the meeting all the time. A tall white man in his fifties walked to me and asked me â€Å"first time here? †; â€Å"yes† I said. â€Å"don’t worry; this meeting helped me a lot. I am father of 16-years-old son, I hide and drink and I am mean to my wife,† the man said.â€Å"wow, hope you get better, I said with a surprised voice. I sat in the back on a creamy plastic chair looking around at what kind of posters they had in the room, an interesting poster said â€Å"IAM RESPONSIBLE†, and another big long post was titled THE TWELVE CONCEPTS FOR WORLD SERVICE. At 6:30 pm Amy walked into the room everyone said â€Å"HI AMY†, â€Å"how’s everyone, glad yall made it† Amy said. Here I notice the meeting started everyone sat down and read IAM RESPONSIBLE all together in one voice. Wow! It looks like these people come here a lot they know what to do. â€Å"Iam responsible† post was about words put together to cheer everyone in room to feel that they can be responsible to change for better life. Next they read THE TWELVE CONCEPETS post, they twelve rules are about how to work on changing inside them and working on their problems. â€Å"hmm, very interesting† I said, people keep coming in to join the group there were around 30 persons, age between 25-60, all kind of people male and female, Black, white, Asian, Latin all kind of people. Around 6:50pm group of bikers entered the room all sat next to each other wearing-same jackets, around five guys in their fifties. A white girl in her twenties entered after them with a child and joined the meeting, too. Amy said; â€Å"who’s here for the first time†, everyone turned and looked at me and I thought, â€Å"no way to hide. † I raised my hand kind of shyly. â€Å"Welcome, introduce yourself please† Amy said. â€Å"hi, I am Angelica, and I am here to help my husband stop drinking† I said. Yes I lied about my name and-reason I am there, but that’s what came in my mind when she asked me.â€Å"do you think he’s an alcoholic† Amy asked. â€Å"Hmm, I am not sure but he seems to be drinking a lot these days which is not usual† I said. â€Å"Well, welcome, I hope you find your answers† Amy said. â€Å"Welcome Angelica† everyone said. I sat in back and I listened to everyone talking about their days and lives, families, and people they care about. To start talking in meeting they raised their hand and said their name and â€Å"I am alcoholic,† just like â€Å"hello all I am Angelica and I am an alcoholic.† They start talking about what they want to share with-others. I saw the hope in everyone’s eyes in that room and excitement, talking about pass? And how they had changed. I sat listening to their stories and watching people talking I was all quiet and didn’t say a word. Some of them were calm talking about their family and how happy they were able to take care of them and how this meeting helping them to realize how bad they? Once felt how much their family’s needs them a- father or mother, wife and husband. Some other people were telling their stories with anger and tension about how bad they were, and what they would do to have alcohol. Meeting was one hour. After I sat there and listened to all these stories I felt very sad, and wondered how someone could get to this point, just like drugs. After hour meeting over, everyone returned the book they had and organized the room, and stand together talking about how good it was to see each other, they were all friends, family, not just a group that had come over here to do what they had to do. This was awesome I walked out and said â€Å"thank you, I enjoyed the meeting was good to meet yall. † They answered â€Å"thank you for coming hopefully we helped you a little; enjoy the rest of your day. † That was nice and sweet from them they were very friendly. When I got in-car I knew I will never go back again but it was a different experience. I learned from it: no matter what, people can change if they decide to.

Money and Banking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Money and Banking - Essay Example This is because the financial crisis has deeper roots. The global credit crunch has been traced by economists and media pundits to be caused by the sub prime mortgage crisis which has disrupted the US financial system, which effect has impacted many of the advanced economies of the world. According to the article, the ‘financialization’ of the US economy by speculative activities in order to hoard capital is the major reason for the global crisis—where the economy has overcapacity of capital but no increase in production in order to back it up. In order to understand it better, the authors have linked first the global financial crisis to the subsequent events that has appeared which may have been the trigger, but not the sole cause of it. While according to the article, this financialization process which is caused by speculation of capital increased the supply of capital in the economy, and not because of faster growth of production may have taken place a couple of decades ago, the trigger has occurred when asset bubbles appeared and the Fed has started ‘to make preemptive attacks.’ The trigger starts back after the 2000 stock market crash. According to the article, there are several policies which aimed to prevent â€Å"economic catastrophes† from happening. When the housing bubble occurred in 2006 at the same time interest rates are increased by Fed in order to regulate inflation, the housing sector as well as mortgage-backed securities faced a meltdown. This has been the start of the chain of events that lead to the global financial crisis. However, according to the authors, Fed’s efforts in order to address the crisis by bailing out several financial institutions will result in the effect that it aims to promote because the problem lies in a much deeper issue. While many economists and media pundits trace back the

Imperialism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Imperialism - Essay Example n instance, Michael Parenti depends on the economic exploitations of imperialism as the basis of his definition, as he says, â€Å"By imperialism I mean the process whereby the dominant politico-economic interests of one nation expropriate for their own enrichment the land, labor, raw materials, and markets of another people† (24). A true impartial tone about the core nature of imperialism is Lake’s definition, as he says, â€Å"Imperialism is a form of international hierarchy in which one political unit, or polity, effectively governs or controls another polity† (7232). Since Lake’s political perspective focuses on the core political aspect of imperialism, it, though implicitly, implicates other aspects also through the two terms â€Å"effectively governs or control† and â€Å"another polity†. The term â€Å"effective control† refers to suppressions in various economic and cultural forms because the dominant polity in imperialism cannot assimilate â€Å"another polity† within itself by obliterating the otherness and the distance that prevails between the dominant and the dominated. Lake refers to this failure of the imperialistic dominant to shed the otherness as a primary cause of suppression in the following quote: â€Å"Exploitation of the weak by the stron g is not essential to imperialism, but it is an often natural outgrowth of effective domination. The affinity between domination and exploitation explains the typically pejorative status of the term.† (7232) In fact, the definition of imperialism is such that it cannot shed off its oppressive and repressive apparels. The existential basis of Imperialism essentially lies in the early European Colonialism. Though the overall concept of imperialism is different from early European colonialism, the underlying motif to rule the weaker people is existent at the core of these two forms of dominance. Indeed the later one is more associated with the political systems of ruling the people of an area than the colonialism

CASE STUDY ANALYSIS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

CASE STUDY ANALYSIS - Essay Example This resulted in lower demand of the beverages. Companies’ performances in the beverage industry have also been affected by the change in consumer preference. In the recent times, there has been a growing preference for sports drinks, energy drinks and vitamin-enhanced drinks. This has resulted in a decrease in the demand for the normal carbonated soft drinks. It is expected the decline will continue to take place as the preference for the alternative beverages continue to grow. This growing preference has created opportunities for new companies to join the beverages industry because it gives them a competitive advantage over the already established firms that major produce the carbonated soft drinks. As a result, the industry has expanded and with its expansion, the performance of already existing firms has declined. The declined could first be associated with the decreasing demand of the carbonated soft drinks. Secondly, the fall in performance is due to the increasing number of firms in the market competing for the same customers. The previously already established companies are also forced to start producing the alternative drinks in order to maintain their market share. The emergence and growth of new products that were not there before in the beverage industry have also contributed to the performances of the companies. There has been an increased growth of new products in the beverages industry. These new products threaten to displace the already existing products in the market. An example of a new product that was not in the market before is the Living Essentials’ 5-hour energy drink. This is a two- once energy shot drink. Since its introduction, it has been able to displace all the other energy drinks that were in the market. Its market share by 2009 was 85% of the market share of all the drinks falling in its category. Pricing is one of the strategies employed by Coca

The New Supervisor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The New Supervisor - Essay Example In case there is a technical problem, he should be in position to understand the problem and work out solutions. The new supervisor must guard against complacency, improper use of time, getting bogged under rules and procedures, and overstress (McNamara, Carter, 2009). In addition, he must possess a robust personality. This means he must possess a distinct attitude that radiates quality, quantity and safety in the work place. It is a measure of confidence that he has in himself and those working under him have in him. He must be able to effectively take charge and carry his team with him to meet targets successfully and regularly. This function may be routine. But sometimes there may be problems. Problems in quality, problem with a particular staff or worker, an accident, and these may require careful handling. The supervisor must be mentally alert to these and other problems that could arise and deal with them effectively. Establishing discipline is the primary responsibility of the new supervisor. This is the first fundamental in the style of the supervisor's operation. However, discipline must not be made a rigid, impersonal taskmaster. Discipline is a factor that has the entire team work for results in a time bound manner. The second fundamental is respect. The supervisor must earn and retain the respect of his entire team. ... Discipline is a factor that has the entire team work for results in a time bound manner. The second fundamental is respect. The supervisor must earn and retain the respect of his entire team. There will be plenty of opportunities to earn respect and the chief tool is attitude. The supervisor's attitude is being watched by his subordinates as well as the higher ups. There is tremendous merit in the strategy of waiting. However, it is not a waiting doing nothing. The supervisor must be master at the art of delegating. Delegation is the third fundamental of supervision. This shows how well the supervisor is acquainted with his team. Delegation involves not only assigning tasks but also quality time spent by the supervisor with each member of his team so that he gets to understand their unique abilities. Motivating is the fourth and final fundamental of the supervisor's style of operation. The speed and efficiency of the team depends on their thoroughness and ability to foreclose deals. A motivated team has its supervisor to thank for. Depending on the attitude and abilities of the supervisor the team scale dizzying heights or perform below par. Dealing with Special Situations Handling a team is not always an easy job. There are various problems to face and overcome. The supervisor must master the art of staying positive in difficult situations. Difficult situations do not always come from external sources. They can happen from within. A team member may hold grudges and this may be cause for the team to perform below its standards. There may be discord among two team members. The supervisor may not be in a position to handle all discords. But he can certainly handle the ones that come in the way of the team's goals. There are challenges in working with other

Art Parthenon and the Ara Pacis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Art Parthenon and the Ara Pacis - Essay Example To Greeks, Parthenon symbolized the ideal of perfection, which each person anticipated achieving in life contrary to the other people. This is because they deemed other people did not have any ideals or values, which they lived by or guided them to be different from the mere humanity. It also depicted their way of life, which entailed attention to fine details in all the tasks they undertook, hence differentiated them from other uncouth populace. Additionally, Parthenon expressed the Greeks’ aspects of harmony, balance and organization or order evidently in its mode of design. The most pronounced ideal conveyed by Ara Pacis was the power, which emanated from the ascendance of empire’s generals. This was after the return of King Augustus where his allies assumed diverse positions in his authority . Besides, there was emergence of foreign children (evident in Fig. 3) into the Roman, which implied that the state was the center of attraction and comfort. Hence, the entire w orld can come and inhabit in Rome due to the peace maintained by King Augustus’ authority. The depiction of Greeks’ perfection and fine to details is apparent in the Parthenon’s design. This is via from the way the Parthenon’s builders carefully utilized geometry to come up with well-scaled features, which are proportional. Hence, setting all the Athenians apart from other global people where according to them (Athenians) during then referred other people as barbarians. The Parthenon’s site and painting emphasized the aspect of harmony.... Besides, there was emergence of foreign children (evident in Fig. 3) into the Roman, which implied that the state was the center of attraction and comfort (Buxton & Kleiner 57). Hence, the entire world can come and inhabit in Rome due to the peace maintained by King Augustus’ authority. c) The Parthenon The depiction of Greeks’ perfection and fine to details is apparent in the Parthenon’s design (Lstiburek 85). This is via from the way the Parthenon’s builders carefully utilized geometry to come up with well-scaled features, which are proportional. Hence, setting all the Athenians apart from other global people where according to them (Athenians) during then referred other people as barbarians (Lstiburek 80). The Parthenon’s site and painting emphasized the aspect of harmony where its color does not contrast with its environment. The shape of the entire building coupled with its interior design depicts the aspects of order and symmetrical balance, w hich is evident from the bird’s view (in Fig. 2). Fig. 2 depicts the outline and scale utilized in laying diverse structures that comprised the temple, for instance, pillars. Figure 1: The Parthenon. Accessed on 23rd October 2012 from Figure 2: Parthenon Bird's view plan showing the aspects of balance, order and fine to details. This is evident from the scale used, which enabled well placement of the peripheral pillars from each side. Accessed on 23rd October 2012 from The Ara Pacis Contrary to the Parthenon’s site, Ara Pacis’ location was inside a building though both the structures

Sustainable Design in Tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Sustainable Design in Tourism - Essay Example It is only recently that there has been a growing recognition of the importance of combining the needs of traditional urban management (transportation, land use planning, marketing, economic development, fire, and safety etc.) with the need to plan for tourism.† Sustainable design includes structures, which need fewer materials, and resources to construct and maintain are relatively more healthy and comfortable to work and live in. it does not mean a new building style rather it is a revolution in how people think about design, build, and operate buildings. One of the main aims of sustainable design is to reduce the harm caused by poorly designed buildings by combining the best of old building approaches with the new technological advances. Sustainable tourism is â€Å"an industry which attempts to make a low impact on the environment and local culture while helping to generate income, employment, and the conservation of local ecosystems. It is responsible tourism which is both ecologically and culturally sensitive.† Constructions have huge impacts on the environment. In industrialized countries, carbon dioxide emissions from the constructions form the half of total national carbon emissions and construction waste account for 35-40 percent of national annual waste output. The 60’s of the twentieth century witnessed the construction of several hundred uncomfortable and uneconomical resorts which required most expensive devices of refrigeration and heating. Though modern construction is much more energy and resources efficient than the building’s in the 60’s, they are still far from sustainable and eco-friendly. It is a fact that many resorts continue to be designed with little regards for improved comfort, climate, or reduction of energy, water, and waste during construction and occupation.

Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Microeconomics - Essay Example The nation with the greatest income disparity associated with inequality is Great Britain (Economist, 2007). Having equity in a system is very important. Equity is relative to the size of the family nucleus. A family with an income of $40,000 with six members has a lower standard of living than a single person with the same income. The importance about balance is that it has helped transform the United States into a society in which unity exists due to the existence of equity. In any system in which inequality a way to change the nation faith is by emphasising in the nation’s educational system. Those who waited for the reward that comes with education will have more opportunities that those who are not in a position to do the same and achieve a higher educational status such as a bachelors or a masters degree. In the village depicted in the story Patient Capital (2007) the Indian tribe members were witness of inequality rising within their communities due to a variety of factors. One of the most influential factors for the appearance of inequality among the Indian members was education levels. Most of the society did not have opportunities for college education due to family and village responsibilities which were necessary for the survival of a group of people living in very high levels of poverty. The educated member of the tribe gain much more wealth than the rest of the members. In the United its agriculture trajectory is good example how a group of people was able to evolve its economy by switching from agriculture model to a manufacturing and service economy. Such an economy is better able to provide greater levels of income which improve standard of living of the people. There are many persons in the US who have struggled to break the barriers of inequality. In systems such as the United States prior to the civil movements of the 1960’s or in South Africa prior to the elimination of apartheid in 1994

South Carolina and Georgia Essay Example for Free

South Carolina and Georgia Essay When the American colonies rebelled against Great Britain, the rebels gave their reasons in the Declaration of Independence. According to the Declaration, people have unalienable rights to liberty. â€Å"The ideology of the revolutionary generation shaped the later American Bill of Rights. This revolutionary ideology combined and wove together both the natural rights of man and the historic rights of Englishmen†. The colonists emphasized natural rights and historic liberties as a result of their view of government. Government was potentially hostile to human liberty and happiness. Power was essentially aggressive. The rebellious colonists dealt with the problem of aggressive political power by several devices: separation of powers, an independent judiciary, the right of people to have a share in their own government by representatives chosen by themselves, and an insistence on the natural and historical rights and liberties of citizens reflected in revolutionary bills of rights of the several states. These concessions to slavery produced some protests. George Mason, delegate from Virginia and a leading advocate of a federal bill of rights, complained that delegates from South Carolina and Georgia were more interested in protecting the right to import slaves than in promoting the Liberty and Happiness of the people. Some framers rationalized the compromise with slavery on the assumption that the institution would soon die out. In truth, however, a compromise was made in the interest of the Union. While the framers compromised with slavery, they took steps to prevent its spread to new states. Particularly after the adoption of the Bill of Rights the Constitution reflected the Jekyll-and-Hyde character of the nation. The nation sought simultaneously to protect liberty and slavery. All in all, the Bill of Rights was adopted because of the fear of abuses of power by the federal government. It simply had no application to the states. The idea that the federal Bill of Rights protects liberty of speech and press, freedom of religion, and other basic rights from violations by the states has become commonplace, even for lawyers. Indeed, many Americans probably accepted this commonplace when careful lawyers knew it was not so. From 1833 to 1868 the Supreme Court held that none of the rights in the Bill of Rights limited the states. From 1868 to 1925 it found very few of these liberties protected from state action. Those the states were free to flout (so far as federal limitations were concerned) seemed to include free speech, press, religion, the right to jury trial, freedom from self-incrimination, from infliction of cruel and unusual punishments, and more. State constitutions, with their own bills of rights, were available to protect the individual, but too often they proved to be paper barriers. Most, but not all, scholars believe that the Supreme Court was right, at least as a matter of history, up to 1868. They believe, that is, that the founding fathers did not intend for the Bill of Rights to limit the states. In contrast to the English Bill of Rights of 1689, in which the powers of Parliament are protected against the encroachments of the monarch, the American Bill of Rights was created to protect the individual against the intrusions of the legislative and executive branches of the government. As James Madison expressed it, If we advert to the nature of Republican Government we shall find that censorial power is in the people over the Government, and not in the Government over the people. Nowhere in the Bill of Rights is this more sharply affirmed than in the words of the First Amendment: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Although nine of the thirteen colonies had established churches, four did not (Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware). By the time the First Amendment was adopted, however, only three states had an established church -Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. Of even greater significance is that no two states shared the same religious configuration with respect to its population. Not to be overlooked is that in the decade between the Declaration of Independence and the Constitutional Convention, numerous states had made declarations in support of religious freedom prior to the adoption of the Bill of Rights. In 1868 the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified. Beginning in the 1920s, the U. S. Supreme Court began to apply the Bill of Rights to states through a process now called the incorporation of the Bill of Rights into the Fourteenth Amendment. As originally passed, the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government and not to state governments. The Fourteenth Amendments equal protection and due process clauses clearly applied to the states. Through a series of lengthy cases, the Court engaged in a piecemeal process of interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment clauses to include the various freedoms protected in the Bill of Rights. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) the Supreme Court applied freedom of the press to the states. In this case, the city of Minneapolis tried to suppress the publication of scandalous, malicious and defamatory material in newspapers. A newspaper publishers association, fearing censorship, challenged the Minnesota law on the grounds of violation of freedom of press. The Supreme Court struck down the law by contending that it represented prior restraint of future issues. The most important freedom given to the press is freedom from prior restraint, the freedom not to be censored. The process of nationalizing the Bill of Rights through the Fourteenth Amendment continued in the area of free exercise of religion. In Hamilton v. Board of Regents (1934), the Court held that freedom of religion was protected by the First Amendment against invasion by the national government and by the states. This decision was confirmed in Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940). This case questioned the constitutionality of a Connecticut law which banned solicitation of money for religious or charitable reasons unless approved by the secretary of the public welfare council. This particular official had the authority to decide whether a fund-raising cause was truly a religious one. In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the statute violated religious freedom and the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. From the critical standpoint, the Bill of Rights not only constitutionally protects individual rights of citizens, such as freedom of religion, peaceable assembly, right to keep and bear arms, trial by jury, but it also secures the entire system of American democratic values and implementation of democracy in reality. For instance, freedom of press, declared of in the First Amendment, does not mean only that â€Å"Congress shall make no law†¦ abridging the freedom of†¦press. † Considering the fact independent media is one of the pillars of modern democracy, this constitutional guarantee aims to secure democratic principles of the country. Moreover, the freedom of press implies automatically the absence of any censorship limiting the execution of freedom of speech, which is too declared in the First Amendment and similarly is to protect democratic principles. The Bill of Rights has been created not only to protect freedoms and liberties of American citizens on individual levels, but also to secure the position of a person before the government. For example, the Fifth Amendment provides that no person shall be forced in any criminal case to be a witness against oneself. At the same time, from my personal viewpoint, the fundamental importance of the Bill of Rights is its long lasting effect and its tremendous influence on American legislative and judicial system. Firstly, the Bill triggered the adoption by the Congress of several important acts protecting civil liberties like Civil Rights Act. Secondly, because the Bill is an integral and vital part of US Constitution, and thus the ultimate legal power, legislative and judicial system have been continuously improving constitutional doctrine on individual rights. For example, one can notice during 1960-70s the constitutional rights of public employees to freedom of speech and association, procedural due process, and equal protection have also been vastly expanded. Historically the Constitution has retained its flexibility because interpretations of its meaning have changed. Choosing between two or more sets of competing values, the Supreme Court has played a major role in maintaining this flexibility. A significant trend has been the extension of civil rights to the previously powerless. For instance, the involvement of the U. S. Supreme Court in civil rights for blacks is long-standing, dating back to issues from the days of slavery. In the Dred Scott case (1857), Chief Justice Taney ruled that no blacks, slave or free, were citizens, and that blacks had no citizenship rights (Hall, 38). In 1883, two decades after the Civil War and the official end of slavery, the Court ruled on five separate suits affecting the rights of blacks, and collectively called the Civil Rights Cases (1883). These cases arose in response to the Civil Rights Act of 1875 which prohibited racial discrimination in jury selection and public accommodations. In these cases, the public accommodations portions of the 1875 act were challenged. The Court recognized that the Fourteenth Amendment forbade discrimination by states but it made no mention of discriminatory acts committed by individuals. Since the Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination by individuals and private businesses, the Court ruled that the act had overstepped congressional authority and was therefore unconstitutional. By the end of World War II, the Supreme Court had become more supportive of civil rights for blacks. It struck down the all-white primary in Smith v. Allright (1944), arguing that the Democratic party was in essence an agent of the state and was therefore subject to the Fifteenth Amendment. During the late 1940s and the 1950s, the Court followed the trends begun earlier of moving away from the doctrine of separate but equal (Hall, 51). This may be seen in the cases of Sipuel v. Oklahoma (1948), Sweatt v. Painter (1950) and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950). In the Sipuel case, which was similar to the Gaines case, the Court ordered Oklahoma to provide a separate but equal law school for a black woman and stressed the need for equality in facilities. In Sweatt v. Painter, the state of Texas had established a separate black law school but it was inferior to the white law school at the University of Texas in the size of its faculty and the quality of its library and student body. The court ruled that the black law school had to be improved. The Court nearly overturned the separate but equal doctrine in the McLaurin case in which Oklahoma had allowed a black student to attend a white graduate school but had segregated him from the rest of the students by designating separate sections of the library, cafeteria and classrooms for him. The Court struck down these segregation provisions, claiming that they interfered with the ability of the black student to exchange ideas with other students, a requisite for a good education. Although these cases fell short of invalidating the separate but equal principle, they made segregation at the graduate school level more difficult to implement. Perhaps the most significant civil rights cases to aid blacks in the fight for equality were the two Brown cases in the 1950s. Brown v. Board of Education I (1954) arose as the result of a suit against Topeka, Kansas where Linda Brown, a black child, was not permitted to attend a segregated white school four blocks from her home. In Brown I, under the leadership of Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Court overturned the Plessy decision of separate but equal in the public schools by declaring that the separate but equal doctrine made black children feel inferior. In Brown v. Board of Education II (1955), the Court ruled on how to accomplish desegregation, concluding that local school boards should establish plans for desegregation under the supervision of federal district judges and with all deliberate speed. Despite these court rulings, southern school boards were slow to respond and avoided court orders by closing public schools and placing white children in private schools. Consequently, desegregation was only implemented very slowly. Women are not a minority but they have historically experienced legal discrimination based on their gender. The Supreme Court has played an important role in the expansion of rights for women. Overall the Court has been less important in the expansion of womens rights than it has been in the extension of rights to blacks and other racial minorities. A major reason for the less important role of the Court is that womens rights have mostly been broadened through legislation. Many womens rights cases addressed by the Supreme Court have been concerned with employment. Early court decisions followed a trend of protectionism and upheld restrictions on the nature and conditions of employment for women. In Bradwell v. Illinois (1873), the Supreme Court upheld a state law preventing women from practicing law. Not until the 1970s did U. S. Supreme Court rulings begin to move away from the restrictive, protectionist trend of the past. Reed v. Reed (1971) was the first instance of the Court striking down a state law which discriminated against women. Taylor v. Louisiana (1975) overturned the precedent set in Hoyt v. Florida. Phillips v. Martin-Marietta (1971) ruled that employers could not discriminate against mothers of preschool children, despite fears that they might often miss work to care for their children. In Stanton v. Stanton (1975) the Court struck down a Utah law which required divorced fathers to support sons until they were twenty-one under the assumption that they would need support while being educated, while daughters had to be supported only until they were eighteen under the assumption that they would get married and be supported by their husbands. Beginning in the 1920s, the U. S. Supreme Court began to apply the Bill of Rights to states through a process now called the incorporation of the Bill of Rights into the Fourteenth Amendment. As originally passed, the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government and not to state governments. The Fourteenth Amendments equal protection and due process clauses clearly applied to the states. Through a series of lengthy cases, the Court engaged in a piecemeal process of interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment clauses to include the various freedoms protected in the Bill of Rights. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) the Supreme Court applied freedom of the press to the states. In this case, the city of Minneapolis tried to suppress the publication of scandalous, malicious and defamatory material in newspapers. A newspaper publishers association, fearing censorship, challenged the Minnesota law on the grounds of violation of freedom of press. The Supreme Court struck down the law by contending that it represented prior restraint of future issues. The most important freedom given to the press is freedom from prior restraint, the freedom not to be censored. In many cases the statements embedded in the Bill of Rights are impacted directly or indirectly through the process of governance in the United States. One of the most peculiar examples of this impact is adoption of the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act of 2001, commonly known as the Patriot Act. This act significantly expands the power of the federal government to investigate, detain, and deport those people who the government suspects are linked to terrorist activity and other crimes. The Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution requires the government to prove to a judicial officer that it has probable cause of a crime before it conducts an invasive search to find evidence of that crime or in exact words, this Amendment declares that â€Å"the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Before the enactment of the Patriot Act, if the primary purpose was a criminal investigation, the law enforcement officials had to first prove the higher standard of probable cause. Investigating criminal activity cannot be the primary purpose of surveillance. Now American society witnesses how one of the most fundamental statements of the Bill of Rights, particularly that one protecting individual freedoms from the state, is challenged. The change made by Section 218 of the Patriot Act authorizes uncon stitutional activity by impinging on the Fourth Amendment protection that requires probable cause. Section 218 now provides law enforcement officials with a tool to avoid probable cause when conducting criminal investigation surveillance. The adoption of the Patriot Act has been triggered with the war the United States declared against terrorism. Interestingly, the same event, the war on terrorism, challenged another important element of the Bill of Rights, namely the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, which states that â€Å"no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. † Practically, this statement aims to secure individuals from unconstitutional exercise on the behalf of the government. Importantly, this article provides Americans with the right to be tried by unprejudiced courts with application of lawful procedures and laws. However, during the war in Afghanistan and Iraq, the US government intentionally deterred in prisons many prisoners of war (identifying them as terrorists) without court orders, indictments and further court hearings. Here one can notice the constitutional collision, in which the rights of the US government during wartime (including deterring of individuals without due process clause) challenges the statements embedded in the Bill of Rights. Works Cited Barnett, Randy E. ed. , 1989. Ninth Amendment. supra note 29, at 18 Bailyn, Bernard. 1967. Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. Ely, J. 1980. Democracy and Distrust. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Hall, Kermit L. 1989. The Magic Mirror. Law in American History, New York: Oxford University Press. Levine, James P. 1992. Juries and Politics, Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Madison, James. November 27, 1794. Republicanism. Speech in Congress. Annals of Congress 934. Nelson, William E. 1988. The Fourteenth Amendment: From Political Principle to Judicial Doctrine. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Schwartz, B. 1971. The Bill of Rights. A Documentary History. pp. 222-226. Wiecek, W. 1976. The Sources of Antislavery Constitutionalism in America, 1760-1848. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. P. 74

Hepatitis B epidemiology and prevention strategies Essay Example for Free

Hepatitis B epidemiology and prevention strategies Essay Hepatitis B is a serious viral infection which is characterized by hepatic cell inflammation and disturbed liver functioning and is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. It is a disease known to mankind since antiquity, given that cases of epidemic jaundice are reported in ancient Chinese documents as well as in Hippocrates’ writings in the 5th century B. C. Similar epidemics have been described during the Medieval and the Renaissance years, however, the first recorded cases of hepatitis B are probably dated in 1883 in German shipyard workers following the administration of small pox vaccine. In 1965, Blumberg identified a specific antigen in the serum of an Australian Aborigine, named â€Å"Australia antigen†, which was later linked to hepatitis B. Its detection allowed the accurate diagnosis of HBV infection, expanded scientific knowledge on the field and led to effective prevention and treatment strategies (Mahmoud Al-Hussami, 2004). According to World Health Organization, hepatitis B affects almost 2 billion people worldwide, which represents one third of global population. 75% of the world population live in areas of high endemicity, thus being exposed to high infection risk. (Previsani et al, 2002). In its chronic form, the infection affects almost 350 million individuals and may lead to several major complications including liver cirrhosis and failure and hepatocellular carcinoma, thus having an adverse effect on patients’ survival and quality of life (Lok, 2002; Rantala, 2008). Recent epidemiological and clinical data reveal that up to 80% of primary liver tumors worldwide can be attributed to chronic HBV infection (Lavanchy et al, 2004). It is estimated that hepatitis B is responsible for one million deaths annually, half of which are associated with hepatocellular carcinoma. In addition, economotechnical studies worldwide reveal that chronic hepatic B patients require long and frequent hospitalizations thus posing a significant financial burden on national health care systems (Pantazis et al, 2008). There is great variation in hepatitis B prevalence rates worldwide. The disease is more prevalent in developing countries, including tropical Africa, Southeast Asia and China, where 10-15% of the general population are HBsAg carriers (Previsani et al, 2002). In contrast, developed countries with higher standards of living and better organized public health systems, are considered areas of low endemicity for the disease. In Western and Central Europe, North America and Australia, seroprevalence rates range from 0.  2 to 1. 5% of the general population. In these areas, young adults are mostly affected, with males having 1. 8 greater risk to be infected compared to females. It is estimated that 200,000-300,000 individuals in the United States become infected with HBV annually, and almost one million people are chronically infected. Despite, HBV infection’s low prevalence, there are certain sub-populations in the Western world that run extremely high risk compared to the general population. These high-risk groups include infants born to infected mothers, healthcare workers, intravenous drug users, individuals living with HBV patients, sexually active heterosexuals with multiple partners, homosexual males, haemodialysis patients and patients frequently receiving blood transfusions (Previsani et al, 2002). The existence of a sub-population of vulnerable individuals, underlines the fact that hepatitis B remains a small yet appreciable public health risk and emphasizes the need for proper interventions. WHO suggests specific measures aiming at HBV infection surveillance and disease control. Although in most countries reporting HBV infection is mandatory, a significant percentage of cases go under-reported and surveillance systems need to be upgraded. In addition, effective disease control should encompass broadening of immunization, effective screening of blood and blood products to avoid transmission through transfusion and educating healthcare workers and high-risk individuals (Previsani et al, 2002). After the introduction of HBV vaccine in 1981, the systematic implementation of national vaccination programs in developed countries has led to a significant decrease in seroprevalence. By the end of the year 2007, 171 countries had instituted the systematic vaccination of infants [5]. HBV vaccine represents a safe and highly effective method of immunization which protects against hepatitis B and its long-term complications in 95% of cases (Previsani et al, 2008). Initially, HBV vaccine was a plasma derived product, however due to concerns regarding the possibility of viral transmission, it was substituted by the recombinant form. The current trend in hepatitis B vaccination supported by the Center for Disease Control (CDC) is to target not solely high risk individuals but also all newborns, children and adolescents up to 18 years of age, given that in a significant proportion (30%) of acute HBV infections no risk factor can be traced. However, despite the vaccine’s established efficacy, vaccination programs’ success is currently limited by the existence of a sizeable percentage of individuals who refuse to be vaccinated. Several studies worldwide have revealed that vaccination rates among healthcare workers hardly reach 50% (CDC, 1991). Likewise, in earlier and recent studies, parents reported significant doubts about global infant immunization (Woodruff et al, 1996; Hontelez et al, 2010). A recent German study reported vaccination rates of 29% for the general population and 58% for high risk groups, revealing a significant gap in vaccination coverage (Schenkel et al, 2008). Parameters which have consistently been shown to relate to vaccination acceptance include higher educational level, younger age and better information about the disease (Mahmoud Al-Hussami, 2004; Panhotra et al, 2005). Additional reasons for low vaccination compliance may be associated with vaccine availability and cost. Despite their growth and prosperity and the development of welfare state, western societies still have to cope with the fact that a sizeable proportion of the population lacks access to basic healthcare, due to financial and social reasons. These findings underscore the importance of informing and educating the public opinion about hepatitis B and widening the availability of HBV vaccine. In order to implement an effective vaccination campaign, people should be responsibly informed regarding risk factors, ways of transmission and prevention measures. In this way, not only vaccination acceptance will rise, but, in addition, individuals will be encouraged to adopt a healthier lifestyle, including embracing basic hygiene habits, condom use and other safe sex practices in everyday life. Previous research has shown that using the internet and the mass media to provide disease-related information may have a positive impact on disease prevention (Kang et al, 2010). In addition, school-based programs have proven adequately efficacious in modifying negative parental attitudes towards immunization thus increasing vaccination rates. (Ogilvie et al, 2010). Insurance providers are strongly encouraged to undertake similar educational initiatives targeting the whole population to minimize disease’s medical, psychosocial and financial impact. Lowering vaccine cost and rendering it accessible to the whole population requires additional funding and strong policy makers, determined to defend public safety and well-being against economic gain and pharmaceutical companies’ agendas. In the USA, the price of vaccination per dose ranges from 15 to 41 U. S. dollars, depending on the context where it takes place, and emerges as a major barrier to immunization. However, even in countries of low endemicity, such as the USA, universal immunization programs appear cost-effective, given the significant burden imposed by the disease and its long-term complications in terms of financial and human resources (Previsani et al, 2002). When coping with public health issues, preventive approaches represent more efficacious and cost-effective strategies compared to treatment plans, and in this respect, insurance providers may economize in the long run by covering vaccination’s cost. Another important measure for disease control is the implementation of systematic screening of blood and blood products. Modern screening practices based on recent advances in immunochemistry and molecular biology have significantly decreased HBV transmission through blood transfusion, however, there remains a small percentage of cases where HBV can not be detected. These cases represent a significant risk for multi-transfused patients, a risk which can be eliminated through educating and encouraging blood donors to keep a responsible and sensitive stance. Avoiding donating blood when engaging in high risk behaviors is probably the more simple and effective way of reducing the risk of HBV infection through blood transfusion. In conclusion, hepatitis B represents a major public health condition worldwide, associated with severe complications, poor quality of life and increased mortality rates. National and international organizations have addressed the issue, raising public and individual awareness and encouraging wide-scale immunization programs. However, significant obstacles have been detected in the implementation of disease prevention strategies, including difficulties in repudiating high-risk behaviors and adopting a healthier way of living, and limited availability and acceptance of the vaccine. In this respect, policy makers can maximize the efficacy of HBV prevention, by providing accurate and valid information to the public and increasing people’s access to vaccination.